Financial derivatives are contracts of which the price/value of the contract varies with the value of an underlying instrument. The underlying instrument may be a bond, an equity, an interest rate, a currency exchange rate, commodity price or, in a recent development, even a credit risk.
Financial derivatives can either be standardised contracts traded on a recognised Exchange or OTC traded (see below). In the first case, one of the counterparties in a trade is an Exchange. As the contracts are standardised there is no difference between the net and gross outstanding volume for each market participant. Buying on day 1 and selling on day 2 leads to a total disengagement of the position. Futures and exchange-traded options are common instruments in this class.
As the prices of these instruments are objectively known at any point in time they can fulfill the function of “benchmark instruments” for the calibration of other prices. This “benchmark” function can as well be fulfilled by some liquid underlying instruments, like government bonds, stocks of companies with a sufficient high market capitalisation or frequently traded currency-pairs.
The other possibility is that the contracts are individually negotiated and tailor-made between two counterparties (so called “over the counter (OTC) transactions”). In this case entering into a contract on day 1 and entering into a similar contract with the opposite sign on day 2 may lead to a market risk position of close to zero, but still to 2 contracts which have to be maintained until their designated final maturity. Instruments in this class are swaps, swaptions, FRAs, caps, floors, FX-forwards, all kind of options on stocks, bonds, interest rates or currencies, as well as more exotic varieties and credit derivatives. Since the OTC contracts are individually negotiated, no objective market price exists. The parties need to do their own valuation of the contracts both when dealing as well as later on when establishing the market value of their contracts during their life. This valuation is normally based on pricing formulas using so-called valuation parameters for input. There are different models that can be used, depending on the preferences of a party. The valuation parameters are either estimated or derived from benchmark instruments using other theoretical models. This subjective method of establishing the value of a contract means that the parties do get to different results. The differences are small in simple products but can be quite substantial in more complex products.
Active players in these instruments may run books that comprised of tens of thousands of individual transactions (the largest dealers even have more than 200,000 outstanding contracts). The management of these positions is no longer possible on the level of the individual transactions, but only on an aggregated level. A common way of risk management is to sort the OTC-instruments by underlying instrument, and then express the market value and some risk-characteristics in time-buckets.
Frequently used risk-characteristics or sensitivities to the valuation parameters are for example the so-called Greeks: delta, gamma, vega and theta. Delta refers to the first differential from the value of the trade for a change in value of the underlying instrument, thus enabling the judging of the risk-content of the position expressed in units of the underlying instrument. Gamma refers to the second differential from the value of the trade for a change in value of the underlying instrument, or the change in delta for each subsequent change in the value of the underlying instrument. Gamma can be extremely non-linear, even for individual trades, and certainly for portfolios of many trades. Vega is the change in value of the instrument for a small change in the volatility of the instrument. Theta is the change in value of the instrument from one day to the next, all other parameters held constant. In case the contracts have a foreign currency component, the net present value of the foreign currency amount is sensitive to changes in the FX-rates. Hence, these net present values should also be considered a risk-characteristic. For derivatives where the main underlying is the interest rate for various time periods, (the so-called yield curve), the deltas are normally calculated referring to changes in interest rates in different time segments (or time buckets) of the yield curve.
Where the present application later on refers to the Greeks, all sensitivities to the valuation parameters should be included. The Greeks from individual trades can be aggregated for a portfolio of trades to form the corresponding Greeks of the portfolio. A set of trades is defined as being risk-neutral when the aggregated Greeks are close to zero. Hence, the aggregated value of a risk-neutral set of trades is quite insensitive to changes in the valuation parameters
The institutions active in the OTC markets use computer systems for storing the details of the transactions they have done. These systems normally have the capability to revalue all transactions and calculate the Greeks of all transactions on a unilateral basis. A normal procedure is also to do a daily mark-to-market, which means re-valuation of all transactions according to the prevailing market conditions. The mark-to-market values as of close of business are stored in databases for calculating profit and loss, risk exposure, credit exposure etc. The Greeks or the risk parameters can be cal-culated in different ways using different units or different scaling factors. Semantically, the risk parameters contain the same information although the numerical values may differ, depending on the methodology used by the risk-management system.
The professionally dealing participants in the OTC markets are banks, investment banks and other financial institutions (later referred to as dealers or market-makers). ISDA, the International Swap and Derivatives Association, has roughly 180 primary members and is a trade organisation for all organisations in some way active in the OTC derivatives market. A substantial number of these dealers consider themselves to be “market-makers” in a more or less broad spectrum of products. This means that they are always willing to put a price on a potential transaction that is brought to their attention by a customer or another dealer, be it direct or through a broker. In roughly 80% of the transactions both participants are dealers/market-makers. Only 20% of the transactions have an “end-user” as party to the agreement. The role of the market maker is to provide liquidity to the market. The motivation for the market maker is to deal OTC derivatives in high volumes, both “buying” and “selling”, making revenues out of the bid/offer spread.
The total outstanding volume of interest rate based OTC derivatives has passed the 60 TRILLION US$, the OTC market as a whole has a size of over 88 TRILLION US$ according to statistics as of December 1999 collected by the Bank for International Settlements.
The motivation for entering into an OTC derivative transaction is the management of market risk positions, either for the purpose of hedging (immunising a position from changes in market prices) or for the purpose of deliberate position taking (trying to make a profit from an expected change in market prices).
The advantage of derivatives is that the market risk of substantial amounts can change hands without the need to really transfer the underlying (nominal) values.
OTC derivative contracts can have maturities up to 30 or even 50 years but the majority of contracts traded are in the up to 10 years maturity range. The long maturity means that financial institutions (banks) active in this market build up large sets of live transactions. Holding these live transactions is associated with operational cost and operational risk.
The economic value of an individual contract can be several million dollars. An individual contract can also have a significant market risk meaning that the value can change several hundred thousand dollars during the course of a normal business day. Banks need to manage the aggregated market risk so that they don't accidentally run into trading losses.
Since banks are both buying and selling these types of contracts, the aggregated value and market risk of all transactions done by a bank are typically just a fraction of the gross value and market risk of the transactions. (With gross value it is meant the sum of the absolute values of the individual contracts). Still, in each bilateral relationship a bank will have either a net claim or a net debt. A claim is a credit exposure and as such is subject to capital sufficiency requirements imposed by the regulators. Hence, OTC derivatives trading also generates credit risk and capital costs.